Upsetting the order: how climate and atmospheric change affects herbivore–enemy interactions

Gaining a better understanding of climate and atmospheric change effects on species interactions is one of the great challenges facing modern ecology.Here, we review the literature concerning the responses of insect herbivores and their natural enemies to atmospheric and climate change, focusing specifically on elevated concentrations of atmospheric CO2 and air temperatures.We recommend that future work on the responses of systems to climate change incorporates as far as possible the trophic complexity inherent in ecosystems, and where feasible, considers the effects of interrelated climate factors in tandem. Such studies will produce more realistic insights into how species interactions may respond under future climates.