Role of Earth system processes in the relationship between climate change and cumulative carbon emissions

Estimates of carbon emissions budgets to limit global warming to 1.5 °C or 2 °C rely on the near-linear relationship between global temperature change and total CO 2 emitted, known as the Transient Climate Response to cumulative CO 2 Emissions (TCRE). The TCRE is determined from Earth System Models (ESMs) and is therefore sensitive to the physical and biogeochemical processes represented within them. Here we use an ESM (UKESM) to explore the sensitivity of TCRE to six Earth system processes in isolation. Four processes increase TCRE: fire-vegetation interactions by 14.6%; nitrogen limitation of vegetation by 9.7%; diffuse radiation effects on vegetation by 8.5%; and interactive emissions of methane from wetlands by 5.1%. Conversely, two processes marginally reduce TCRE: allowing the vegetation distribution to adapt to changing climate and CO 2 lowers TCRE by 1.5%, and climate impacts from the emission of biogenic volatile organic compounds reduce it by 1.4%. We demonstrate the extent to which each process changes TCRE via its influence on the climate and on the global carbon cycle, and discuss underlying mechanisms. Our results highlight the substantial process-dependence of model-derived estimates of TCRE, with implications for remaining carbon budgets to future warming targets calculated from them.